Constructivism in Practice

Constructionism is an educational strategy and theory, based on the constructivist theories of Jean Piaget.  It asserts that knowledge is actively "constructed" in the mind of the learner, and it emphasizes the creation of artifacts, or products, by the learner (Han & Bhattacharya, 2001). Additionally, it is learner centered, values inquiry, revision and development of ideas, and real-world tasks.  The strategy of generating and testing hypotheses relates to constructionism because the learner is able to construct knowledge as they work with real-world problems through the generation and testing of hypotheses. Two technologies that can be used as part of the generating and testing hypotheses instructional strategy are an investment project using spreadsheet software, and “Practicing with the Catapult,” a web-based program that allows students to explore the physics of a catapult.

The first technology is a spreadsheet that allows students to predict how much money they will make by investing a given amount of money in variety of ways. A teacher could create a spreadsheet with multiple preset investment options and formulas to calculate the results of the investments. Students could then seek out and input the current interest rates to make the project even more realistic. By preparing the formulas in the spreadsheet in advance, the teacher helps the student to “generate and test hypotheses in very little time and gain valuable experience that they can apply to future academic hypotheses” (Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn, & Malenoski, 2007, p 207). While the teacher takes more of an active role in designing the assignment in this project, students are working with a real-world problem, making and revising hypotheses, and inquiring to find the current rates to relate the lesson directly to today's economic situation, which makes this an example of constructionism.

The second technology is the program, “Practicing with the Catapult.” In this program, students are able to work with a variety of variables, such as gravity, launch angle, speed, and height, air resistance, and more. Students can use an equation to make a hypothesis about how fast to throw the object, or they can guess and then revise their guess through trial and error. A physics or Algebra teacher could use this program to help students learn about either force or solving Algebraic equations. Throughout the process, though, the student is revising and developing ideas through a process of inquiry, which relates to the constructionist view.

Each of the technologies explored made use of generating and testing hypotheses and each fit in with the constructionist view. While neither project created an artifact, teachers could certainly guide students in making something tangible that furthered the goals of the project. On the other hand, students would certainly be constructing knowledge while working with each technology.

Resources:

Han, S., and Bhattacharya, K. (2001). Constructionism, Learning by Design, and Project Based Learning. In M. Orey (Ed.), Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology. Retrieved from http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/index.php?title=Constructionism,_Learning_by_Design,_and_Project_Based_Learning

Pitler, H., Hubbell, E., Kuhn, M., & Malenoski, K. (2007). Using technology with classroom instruction that works. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

Practicing with the catapult. Retrieved from http://www.lcse.umn.edu/specs/labs/catapult/practice.html

Cognitivism in Practice

Cognitivism seeks to understand how the mind processes information.  A variety of theories exist, such as Paivio's dual coding hypothesis and the Atkinson-Schiffrin Model, which help to shed light on how the brain works.  When teachers consider these cognitive theories as they plan their instruction, their teaching becomes more effective.  Many technology-related instructional strategies can be referred to as "cognitive tools" because they "use technology to augment learning theory" (Laureate Education, Inc., 2011).

Each theory of learning offers insight into the mind's workings.  The Atkinson-Schiffrin Model suggests that, at the short-term memory level, the brain can process only 5-9 pieces of information at once, and the information must be processed deeply to reach the long-term memory (Laureate Education, Inc., 2011).  This information suggests that a learner should not be provided with too much information at once and they should be given opportunities to process the information more deeply.  The dual coding hypothesis suggests that using images and text/words simultaneously, or smells and text/words, the brain will store the information better than when using words or text only (Laureate Education, Inc., 2011).  Additional theories suggest that memories gained through experiences are stronger than many other types, that involving more senses in the learning process creates stronger memories, and that a person creates stronger memories by associating new information with something familiar to the learner (Laureate Education, Inc., 2011).

One cognitive tool is the concept map.  Concept maps, such as those created on spiderscribe.net, provide the learner with a visual representation of a collection of inter-linked ideas.  According to Novak and Canas, "there are two features of concept maps that are important in the facilitation of creative thinking: the hierarchical structure that is represented in a good map and the ability to search for and characterize new cross-links" (2008).  The thought processes required for students to create a concept map help them to think deeply and can help facilitate the creation of long-term memories.  Concept maps also create the opportunity to make use of the dual coding hypothesis by combining images and text (Laureate Education, Inc., 2011).

Another set of cognitive tools is the use multimedia such as PowerPoint presenations, video clips, or software such as Stellarium, which is a "computer-based planetarium" (Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn, & Malenoski, 2007).  Most students find these tools very engaging and they are also effective because they help them "activate prior knowledge and develop a mental model to understand new information" (Pitler et al., 2007).  In many cases, the learner is creating experiences though the use of this technology as well.

While not often thought of as such, spreadsheets and calculators are also forms of cognitive tools.  Dr. Michael Orey suggests that, “giving [students] a spreadsheet that has all of the data allows them to focus on the solution to the problem” (Laureate Education, Inc., 2011).  A calculator has a similar effect.  However, it must also be noted that cognitive tools, such as calculators, can sometimes have negative side effects too.  While the calculator aids students in reaching higher-level thinking skills by getting them past some of the "simple" steps more quickly, teachers might find that students' mental math skills deteriorate with the use of calculators.

Despite the side effects, students can benefit from the use of cognitive tools in the classroom because they allow for deeper learning.  Cognitive theories suggest that these tools can enhance learning by allowing students to focus on solutions to problems rather than calculations, incorporating multiple senses into experiences, by creating new experiences, and by activating old knowledge to make new information more meaningful.

References:

Laureate Education, Inc. (Producer). (2011). Program five: Cognitive learning theory [Video webcast]. Bridging learning theory, instruction and technology. Retrieved from http://laureate.ecollege.com/ec/crs/default.learn?CourseID=5700267&CPURL=laureate.ecollege.com&Survey=1&47=2594577&ClientNodeID=984650&coursenav=0&bhcp=1

Novak, J. D., & Cañas, A. J. (2008). The theory underlying concept maps and how to construct and use them, Technical Report IHMC CmapTools 2006-01 Rev 01-2008. Retrieved from the Institute for Human and Machine Cognition Web site: http://cmap.ihmc.us/Publications/ResearchPapers/TheoryUnderlyingConceptMaps.pdf

Pitler, H., Hubbell, E., Kuhn, M., & Malenoski, K. (2007). Using technology with classroom instruction that works. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

Behaviorism in Practice

This week I learned about behaviorism and its application in the classroom.  Behaviorism seeks to encourage certain responses and/or behaviors through positive reinforcement, while discouraging others through negative reinforcement.  According to James Hartley (1998) as cited in Smith (1999, para. 4), behaviorism claims that it is important that the learner be active (rather than passive), that there is frequent practice, that there are clear objectives for the activity, and that there is reinforcement used as a motivator.  The book, Using Technology with Classroom Instruction that Works  (Pitler, Bubbell, Kuhn, & Malenoski, 2007), gives suggestions for reinforcing student effort and providing students with opportunities to practice what they've learned, which both are part of the behaviorist view .

One of the pillars of behaviorism is reinforcement of desirable behaviors.  The chapter in Using Technology with Classroom Instruction that Works titled, "Reinforcing Effort," describes ways that teachers, and schools, can reinforce students' belief that effort pays a major role in their academic success (Pitler et al., 2007, pp.155-164).  Through the use of spreadsheet software, teachers can help students track the correlation between their effort and grades, providing visual reinforcement of the positive effects of effort (pp. 156-161).  The authors also also provide examples of how effort can be reinforced through the use of surveys, bulletin boards, and web-based methods to reinforce the effort of students.

Another important part of behaviorism is providing opportunities for students to practice what they have learned.  B.F. Skinner, one of the biggest names in behaviorism, designed an instructional strategy called "programmed instruction," that was very similar to an online tutorial that tells you if your answer is correct or incorrect.  The chapter, "Homework and Practice" in Using Technology with Classroom Instruction that Works, lists several resources that are similar to Skinner's "programmed instruction" (Pitler et al., 2007, pp. 196-199).  One example is the Starfall Web site, www.starfall.com, where one game asks students to add the consonant to the start of a word to match a picture.  If the correct letter is added, the student is rewarded with the pronunciation of the word, but if they are incorrect, then the game honks at them.  This type of game can engage students, while providing automated reinforcement to encourage them when the get correct answers.

The book, Using Technology with Classroom Instruction that Works (Pitler et al., 2007), provides good examples of effective application of the behaviorist model of education.  While many aspects of behaviorism are unpopular in education today, reinforcement of behavior, and practice, are two aspects that can be very effective, and they are still frequently used today.

Resources:

Laureate Education, Inc. (Producer). (2011a). Program four: Behaviorist learning theory [Video webcast]. Bridging learning theory, instruction and technology. Retrieved from http://laureate.ecollege.com/ec/crs/default.learn?CourseID=5700267&CPURL=laureate.ecollege.com &Survey=1&47=2594577&ClientNodeID=984650&coursenav=0&bhcp=1

Pitler, H., Bubbell, E., Kuhn, M., & Malenoski, K. (2007).  Using technology with classroom instruction that works. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

Smith, K. (1999). The behaviourist orientation to learning. In The encyclopedia of informal education.  Retrieved from http://www.infed.org/biblio/learning-behavourist.htm